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CONSTANTINO I (m. 337). Constantino, o Grande. Imperador romano, 306-337. Gravura a traço, francesa, século XVII. |
- NOME COMPLETO: César Flávio Valério Constantino Augusto
- NASCIMENTO: 27 de fevereiro de 272; Naissus, Mésia Superior, Império Romano
- FALECIMENTO: 22 de maio de 337 (65 anos); Achyron, Nicomédia, Bitínia, Império Romano
- FAMÍLIA: Helena (mãe), Constâncio Cloro (pai), Minervina (cônjuge), Fausta (cônjuge)
- DESCENDÊNCIA: Crispo, Constantino II, Constâncio II, Constantina, Constante I, Helena
- DINASTIA: Constantiniano
- RELIGIÃO: Politeísmo Greco-romano (até 312), Cristianismo (a partir de 312)
Constantino I (272 – 337), também conhecido como Constantino, o Grande, foi imperador romano de 306 a 337 d.C. e o primeiro imperador romano a se converter ao cristianismo. Ele desempenhou um papel fundamental na elevação do status do cristianismo em Roma, com o Edito de Milão descriminalizando a prática cristã e cessando a perseguição cristã. Este foi um ponto de virada na cristianização do Império Romano. Ele fundou a cidade de Constantinopla (atual Istambul) e fez dela a capital do Império, onde permaneceu por mais de um milênio.
FONTES
Constantino foi um governante de grande importância e sempre foi uma figura controversa. As flutuações em sua reputação refletem a natureza das fontes antigas de seu reinado. Estas são abundantes e detalhadas, mas foram fortemente influenciadas pela propaganda oficial do período e muitas vezes são unilaterais. Nenhuma história ou biografia contemporânea que trate de sua vida e governo sobreviveu; a alternativa mais próxima é a Vita Constantini de Eusébio, que oferece uma mistura de elogio e hagiografia escrita entre 335 e 339 para exaltar as virtudes morais e religiosas de Constantino. A Vita cria uma imagem controversamente positiva de Constantino, e historiadores modernos frequentemente questionam sua confiabilidade. A vida secular mais completa de Constantino é o anônimo Origo Constantini, uma obra de data incerta que se concentra em eventos militares e políticos, negligenciando questões culturais e religiosas.
Lactâncio' De mortibus persecutorum, um panfleto político cristão sobre os reinados de Diocleciano e da Tetrarquia, fornece detalhes valiosos, mas tendenciosos, sobre os predecessores e a infância de Constantino. As histórias eclesiásticas de Sócrates, Sozomeno e Teodoreto descrevem as disputas eclesiásticas do reinado posterior de Constantino. Escritos durante o reinado de Teodósio II (r. 402–450), um século após o reinado de Constantino, esses historiadores eclesiásticos obscurecem os eventos e as teologias do período constantiniano por meio de desorientação, deturpação e obscuridade deliberada. Os escritos contemporâneos do cristão ortodoxo Atanásio de Alexandria e a história eclesiástica do ariano Filostórgio também sobrevivem, embora seus preconceitos não sejam menos firmes.
Os epítomes de Aurélio Vítor (De Caesaribus), Eutrópio (Breviarium), Festo (Breviarium) e o autor anônimo do Epítome de Caesaribus oferecem histórias políticas e militares seculares comprimidas do período. Embora não sejam cristãos, os epítomes pintam uma imagem favorável de Constantino, mas omitem referências às políticas religiosas de Constantino. Os Panegyrici Latini, uma coleção de panegíricos do final do século III e início do século IV, fornecem informações valiosas sobre a política e a ideologia do período tetrárquico e a vida inicial de Constantino. Além disso, a arquitetura contemporânea - como o Arco de Constantino em Roma e os palácios em Gamzigrad e Córdoba - vestígios epigráficos e a cunhagem da época complementam as fontes literárias.
BIOGRAFIA
Constantino nasceu em 27 de fevereiro de 272. Embora seu aniversário oficial seja registrado em fontes, seu ano de nascimento não é, e os estudiosos deram várias estimativas entre 271 e 280, com a maioria inclinando-se para 272 ou 273. No entanto, as evidências apontam para 272 sendo o ano correto. Ele nasceu dentro da cidade de Naissus, durante uma época em que a unidade do Império estava ameaçada pelas guerras separatistas do Império Palmireno. A cidade (moderna Niš, Sérvia) estava localizada em Dardânia dentro da província da Mésia Superior. Seu pai era Flávio Constâncio, um ilírio, ou um trácio, como seu sobrinho, Juliano, escreve em seu livro Misopogon, especificamente, ele menciona que sua família é da tribo Moesi, das margens do Danúbio, e a chama de 'trácia'. Seu nome completo original, bem como o de seu pai, não é conhecido. Seu prenome é dado como Lúcio, Marco e Caio. Seja qual for o caso, os prenomes já haviam desaparecido da maioria dos registros públicos nessa época. Ele também adotou o nome "Valério", o nomen do imperador Diocleciano, após a ascensão de seu pai como césar.
Constantino provavelmente passou pouco tempo com seu pai, que era um oficial do exército romano, parte da guarda imperial do imperador Aureliano. Sendo descrito como um homem tolerante e politicamente habilidoso, Constâncio avançou na hierarquia, ganhando o governo da Dalmácia do imperador Diocleciano, outro dos companheiros de Aureliano da Ilíria, em 284 ou 285. A mãe de Constantino era Helena, uma mulher de baixa posição social, possivelmente de Drepano (mais tarde renomeada Helenópolis) da Bitínia, o que provavelmente a tornaria uma falante de grego. É incerto se ela era legalmente casada com Constâncio ou apenas sua concubina. A língua de Constantino era o latim e, durante os seus discursos públicos nos concílios da igreja, que eram realizados em grego, ele precisava de tradutores gregos.
Em abril de 286, Diocleciano declarou Maximiano, outro colega da Ilíria, seu coimperador. Cada imperador teria sua própria corte, suas próprias faculdades militares e administrativas, e cada um governaria com um prefeito pretoriano separado como tenente-chefe. Maximiano governou no Ocidente, de suas capitais em Mediolanum (Milão, Itália) ou Augusta Treverorum (Tréveris, Alemanha), enquanto Diocleciano governou no Oriente, de Nicomédia (İzmit, Turquia). A divisão era meramente pragmática: o império era chamado de "indivisível" no panegírico oficial, e ambos os imperadores podiam se mover livremente por todo o império. Em 288, Maximiano nomeou Constâncio para servir como seu prefeito pretoriano na Gália. Constâncio deixou Helena para se casar com a enteada de Maximiano, Teodora, em 288 ou 289.
Diocleciano dividiu o império novamente em 293, nomeando dois césares para governar outras subdivisões do Oriente e do Ocidente. Cada um seria subordinado ao seu respectivo augusto, mas agiria com autoridade suprema em suas terras designadas. Este sistema seria mais tarde chamado de Tetrarquia. O primeiro nomeado por Diocleciano para o cargo de César foi Constâncio; o segundo foi Galério, um nativo de Félix Romuliana. De acordo com Lactâncio, Galério era um homem brutal e animalesco. Embora compartilhasse o paganismo da aristocracia romana, parecia-lhes uma figura estranha, um semibárbaro. Em 1º de março, Constâncio foi promovido ao cargo de César e despachado para a Gália para lutar contra os rebeldes Caráusio e Aleto. Apesar das conotações meritocráticas, a Tetrarquia manteve vestígios de privilégio hereditário, e Constantino se tornou o principal candidato para futura nomeação como César assim que seu pai assumiu o cargo. Constantino foi para a corte de Diocleciano, onde viveu como herdeiro presuntivo de seu pai.
No Oriente: Constantino recebeu uma educação formal na corte de Diocleciano, onde aprendeu literatura latina, grego e filosofia. O ambiente cultural em Nicomédia era aberto, fluido e socialmente móvel; nele, Constantino podia se misturar com intelectuais pagãos e cristãos. Ele pode ter assistido às palestras de Lactâncio, um estudioso cristão de latim na cidade. Como Diocleciano não confiava completamente em Constâncio — nenhum dos Tetrarcas confiava totalmente em seus colegas — Constantino foi mantido como uma espécie de refém, uma ferramenta para garantir o melhor comportamento de Constâncio. Constantino era, no entanto, um membro proeminente da corte: ele lutou por Diocleciano e Galério na Ásia e serviu em uma variedade de tribunatos; ele fez campanha contra os bárbaros no Danúbio em 296 e lutou contra os persas sob Diocleciano na Síria em 297, bem como sob Galério na Mesopotâmia em 298-299. No final de 305, segundo alguns, ele havia se tornado um tribuno de primeira ordem, um tribunus ordinis primi.
Constantino havia retornado a Nicomédia da frente oriental na primavera de 303, a tempo de testemunhar o início da "Grande Perseguição" de Diocleciano, a mais severa perseguição aos cristãos na história romana. No final de 302, Diocleciano e Galério enviaram um mensageiro ao oráculo de Apolo em Dídima com uma pergunta sobre os cristãos. Constantino conseguia se lembrar de sua presença no palácio quando o mensageiro retornou e Diocleciano aceitou as exigências da corte imperial por perseguição universal. Em 23 de fevereiro de 303, Diocleciano ordenou a destruição da nova igreja de Nicomédia, condenou suas escrituras às chamas e teve seus tesouros apreendidos. Nos meses que se seguiram, igrejas e escrituras foram destruídas, os cristãos foram privados de cargos oficiais e os padres foram presos. É improvável que Constantino tenha desempenhado qualquer papel na perseguição. Em seus escritos posteriores, ele tentou se apresentar como um oponente dos "editos sanguinários" de Diocleciano contra os "Adoradores de Deus", mas nada indica que ele se opôs efetivamente a eles na época. Embora nenhum cristão contemporâneo tenha desafiado Constantino por sua inação durante as perseguições, isso permaneceu uma responsabilidade política ao longo de sua vida.
Em 1 de maio de 305, Diocleciano, como resultado de uma doença debilitante sofrida no inverno de 304-305, anunciou sua renúncia. Em uma cerimônia paralela em Milão, Maximiano fez o mesmo. Lactâncio afirma que Galério manipulou o enfraquecido Diocleciano para renunciar e o forçou a aceitar os aliados de Galério na sucessão imperial. De acordo com Lactâncio, a multidão que ouvia o discurso de renúncia de Diocleciano acreditava, até o último momento, que Diocleciano escolheria Constantino e Maxêncio (filho de Maximiano) como seus sucessores. Não foi para ser: Constâncio e Galério foram promovidos a augusti, enquanto Severo e Maximino, sobrinho de Galério, foram nomeados seus césares, respectivamente. Constantino e Maxêncio foram ignorados.
Algumas das fontes antigas detalham tramas que Galério fez sobre a vida de Constantino nos meses seguintes à abdicação de Diocleciano. Elas afirmam que Galério designou Constantino para liderar uma unidade avançada em uma carga de cavalaria através de um pântano no médio Danúbio, o fez entrar em combate individual com um leão e tentou matá-lo em caçadas e guerras. Constantino sempre saía vitorioso: o leão saía da disputa em condições piores do que Constantino; Constantino retornou a Nicomédia do Danúbio com um prisioneiro sármata para cair aos pés de Galério. É incerto o quanto essas histórias podem ser confiáveis.
No Ocidente: Constantino reconheceu o perigo implícito em permanecer na corte de Galério, onde foi mantido como um refém virtual. Sua carreira dependia de ser resgatado por seu pai no Ocidente. Constâncio foi rápido em intervir. No final da primavera ou início do verão de 305, Constâncio pediu licença para seu filho ajudá-lo na campanha na Grã-Bretanha. Depois de uma longa noite de bebedeira, Galério atendeu ao pedido. A propaganda posterior de Constantino descreve como ele fugiu da corte à noite, antes que Galério pudesse mudar de ideia. Ele cavalgou de posto em posto em alta velocidade, paralisando todos os cavalos em seu rastro. Quando Galério acordou na manhã seguinte, Constantino havia fugido para longe demais para ser capturado. Constantino se juntou ao pai na Gália, em Bonônia (Boulogne), antes do verão de 305.
De Bononia, eles cruzaram o Canal da Mancha para a Grã-Bretanha e seguiram para Eboracum (York), capital da província da Britânia Secunda e lar de uma grande base militar. Constantino pôde passar um ano no norte da Grã-Bretanha ao lado de seu pai, fazendo campanha contra os pictos além da Muralha de Adriano no verão e no outono. A campanha de Constâncio, como a de Septímio Severo antes dela, provavelmente avançou muito para o norte sem obter grande sucesso. Constâncio ficou gravemente doente ao longo de seu reinado e morreu em 25 de julho de 306 em Eboracum. Antes de morrer, ele declarou seu apoio à elevação de Constantino como imperador. O rei alamânico Croco, um bárbaro colocado a serviço de Constâncio, então proclamou Constantino como augusto. As tropas leais à memória de Constâncio o seguiram em aclamação. A Gália e a Grã-Bretanha rapidamente aceitaram seu governo; A Hispânia (atual Espanha), que estava no domínio do seu pai há menos de um ano, rejeitou-o.
Constantino enviou a Galério um aviso oficial da morte de Constâncio e de sua própria aclamação. Junto com o aviso, ele incluiu um retrato de si mesmo com as vestes de um Augusto. O retrato estava envolto em louro. Ele solicitou reconhecimento como herdeiro do trono de seu pai e transferiu a responsabilidade por sua ascensão ilegal para seu exército, alegando que eles o "forçaram a isso". Galério ficou furioso com a mensagem; ele quase ateou fogo ao retrato e ao mensageiro. Seus conselheiros o acalmaram e argumentaram que a negação total das reivindicações de Constantino significaria guerra certa. Galério foi compelido a um acordo: ele concedeu a Constantino o título de "césar" em vez de "augusto" (o último cargo foi para Severo). Desejando deixar claro que ele sozinho dava legitimidade a Constantino, Galério enviou pessoalmente a Constantino as tradicionais vestes roxas do imperador. Constantino aceitou a decisão, sabendo que ela eliminaria dúvidas quanto à sua legitimidade.
REINADO
- Reinado: 25 de julho de 306 – 22 de maio de 337(somente a partir de 19 de setembro de 324)
- Antecessor: Constâncio I (no Ocidente)
- Sucessor:
- Constantino II
- Constâncio II
- Constante I
- Co-governantes:
- Galério (306–311)
- Severo II (306–307)
- Maxêncio (306–312)
- Maximiano (306–308, 310)
- Licínio (308–324)
- Maximino II (310–313)
- Valente (316–317)
- Martiniano (324)
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Batalha de Constantino e Maxêncio (detalhe de afresco em Stanze do Vaticano) c1650 por Lazzaro Baldi após Giulio Romano na Universidade de Edimburgo. |
- Veneração: Ortodoxia Oriental, Catolicismo oriental, Ortodoxia Oriental, Comunhão Anglicana e Igreja Luterana
- Santuário Principal: Igreja dos Santos Apóstolos, Constantinopla
- Celebração: 21 de maio
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Athanasius of Alexandria Epistola de Decretis Nicaenae Synodi (Letter on the Decrees of the Council of Nicaea) c. 352.
Newman, John Henry, trans. De Decretis. From Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, Vol. 4. Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Buffalo, New York: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1892. Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. Online at New Advent. Retrieved 28 September 2009.
Athanasius of Alexandria Historia Arianorum (History of the Arians) c. 357.
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Sextus Aurelius Victor, Liber de Caesaribus (Book on the Caesars) c. 361.
Codex Theodosianus (Theodosian Code) 439.
Mommsen, T. and Paul M. Meyer, eds. Theodosiani libri XVI cum Constitutionibus Sirmondianis et Leges novellae ad Theodosianum pertinentes2 (in Latin). Berlin: Weidmann, [1905] 1954. Compiled by Nicholas Palmer, revised by Tony Honoré for Oxford Text Archive, 1984. Prepared for online use by R. W. B. Salway, 1999. Preface, books 1–8. Online at University College London and the University of Grenoble. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
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Drake, H. A. (1996). "Lambs into Lions: Explaining Early Christian Intolerance". Past & Present (153): 3–36. doi:10.1093/past/153.1.3.
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Barnes 1981, p. 272.
Lenski et al., pp. 2–3, 14, 23–25; Southern 2001, p. 169; Cameron 2005, pp. 90–91.
Barnes 1981, pp. 265–268.
Drake 1988.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.11; cited in Odahl 2001, p. 3
Lenski et al., p. 5; Storch 1971.
Barnes 1981, pp. 265–271; Cameron 2005, pp. 90–92; Elliott 1996, pp. 162–171.
Lieu & Montserrat 1996, pp. 39–40; Odahl 2001, p. 3; Lenski et al., p. 26.
Lenski et al., pp. 14–32; Odahl 2001, pp. 6–14.
Barnes 1981, pp. 12–14; MacKay 1999, p. 207.
Barnes 1981, p. 225.
Odahl 2001, pp. 6, 10.
Lieu & Montserrat 1996, pp. 2–6; Warmington 1999, pp. 166–167.
Wienand 2012, pp. 26–86.
Lenski et al., pp. 20–21, 288–291; Odahl 2001, pp. 8–11.
Doležal 2022, pp. 221–237.
Bernard 2019, p. 543.
Barnes 1981, pp. 3, 39–42; Elliott 1996, p. 17; Odahl 2001, pp. 15–16; Pohlsander 2004b; Southern 2001, p. 169, 341; Barnes 1982, pp. 39–42; Jones 1978, pp. 13–14; Lenski et al., p. 59; Pohlsander 2004a, p. 14; Rodgers 1989; Wright 1987.
Wilkes, John (2012). "Dardani". In Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 414. ISBN 978-0-19-954556-8.
Kazhdan 1991, pp. 524–525.
Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 223.
Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700" (PDF). Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 124–145. doi:10.2307/300873. ISSN 0075-4358. JSTOR 300873. S2CID 162435434. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 April 2020.
Stanislav Doležal, The Reign of Constantine, 306–337. Continuity and Change in the Late Roman Empire. Palgrave Macmillan Cham, 2022; pp. 2–3: "In a sense, this book is dedicated to the "Illyrian Emperors", i.e. those emperors who were born in the Western Balkans and saved, stabilised, and reformed the empire. This line begins with Claudius II (268— 270) and then moves on to Quintillus (270), Aurelian (270—275), and Probus (276—282).3 After a brief interruption by the reigns of Carus and his two sons (282—284), whose birthplace we do not know, the Illyr-ians continued their run with Diocletian (284—305) and three of his colleagues: Maximian (285—305), Constantius (293—306), and Galerius (293—311). A 4th-century historian said of them: "Illyricum was actually the native land of all of them: so although they were deficient in culture, they had nevertheless been sufficiently schooled by the hardships of the countryside and of military service to be the best men for the state". 4 This is not the end of the Illyrian Emperors: Severus (305—307), Maximinus Daia (305—313), Licinius (308—324), and Constantine himself (306—337) can also be counted among them."
Odahl 2001, pp. 36-41.
Barnes 2011, p. 30.
Otto Seeck: Constantius 1.(in German) In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart 1900, col. 1013–1026.
Conrad Benjamin: Constantinus 2.(in German) In: Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE). Vol. IV,1, Stuttgart 1900, col. 1013–1026.
Barnes 1982, p. 5.
Wilson, Steven (2003). The Means Of Naming: A Social History. Routledge. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-135-36836-4.
MacMullen 1969, p. 21.
Panegyrici Latini 8(5), 9(4); Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 8.7; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.13.3
Barnes 1981, pp. 13, 290.
Barnes 1981, p. 3; Lenski et al., pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001, pp. 16–17.
Hillner, Julia (2023). Helena Augusta: Mother of the Empire. Oxford University Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-19-087529-9.
Drijvers, Jan Willem (1991). Helena Augusta. BRILL. pp. 9–17. ISBN 978-90-04-24676-8.
Stanton, Andrea L. (2012). Cultural Sociology of the Middle East, Asia, and Africa: An Encyclopedia. SAGE. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-4129-8176-7. Constantine's mother, Helena, was a Greek from Asia Minor and also a devoted Christian who seemed to have influenced his choices.
Barnes 1981, pp. 3, 39–42; Barnes 1982, p. 39–40; Elliott 1996, p. 17; Lenski et al., pp. 59, 83; Odahl 2001, p. 16; Pohlsander 2004a, p. 14.
Tejirian, Eleanor H.; Simon, Reeva Spector (2012). Conflict, conquest, and conversion: two thousand years of Christian missions in the Middle East. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-231-51109-4.
Barnes 1981, pp. 8–14; Lenski et al., pp. 46–50; Treadgold 1997, pp. 14–15.
Bowman 2005, p. 70; Potter 2004, p. 283.
Barnes 1981, p. 3; Elliott 1996, p. 20; Lenski et al., pp. 59–60; Odahl 2001, pp. 47, 299; Pohlsander 2004a, p. 14.
Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 7.1; cited in Barnes 1981, pp. 13, 290
Barnes 1981, pp. 3, 8–9; Lenski et al., pp. 40–43, 54; Elliott 1996, p. 20; Odahl 2001, pp. 46–47, 56–57; Pohlsander 2004a, pp. 8–9, 14; Treadgold 1997, p. 17.
Barnes 1981, p. 73–74; Lenski et al., pp. 60; Odahl 2001, pp. 72, 301.
Barnes 1981, p. 73–74; Fowden 1988, pp. 175–176.
Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum, 16.2
Elliott 1996, pp. 29–30; Lenski et al., p. 60; Odahl 2001, pp. 72–74.
Pohlsander 2004a, p. 15.
Constantine, Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25
Elliott 1996, p. 30; Odahl 2001, p. 73.
Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 10.6–11
Barnes 1981, p. 21; Elliott 1996, pp. 35–36; MacMullen 1969, p. 24; Odahl 2001, p. 67; Potter 2004, p. 338.
Eusebius, Vita Constantini 2.49–52
Barnes 1981, p. 21; Odahl 2001, pp. 67, 73, 304; Potter 2004, p. 338.
Barnes 1981, pp. 22–25; MacMullen 1969, pp. 24–30; Odahl 2001, pp. 67–69; Potter 2004, p. 337.
MacMullen 1969, pp. 24–25.
Oratio ad Sanctorum Coetum 25
Odahl 2001, p. 73.
Elliott 1987, pp. 425–426; Lenski et al., p. 126.
Barnes 1981, pp. 25–27; Lenski et al., p. 60; Odahl 2001, pp. 69–72; Pohlsander 2004a, p. 15; Potter 2004, pp. 341–342.
Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 19.2–6
Barnes 1981, p. 26; Potter 2004, p. 342.
Lenski et al., pp. 60–61; Odahl 2001, pp. 72–74; Pohlsander 2004a, p. 15.
Origo 4; Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.3–9; Praxagoras fr. 1.2; Aurelius Victor 40.2–3; Epitome de Caesaribus 41.2; Zosimus 2.8.3; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.21
Lenski et al., p. 61; MacMullen 1969, p. 32; Odahl 2001, p. 73.
Lenski et al., p. 61.
Barnes 1981, p. 27; Elliott 1987, pp. 39–40; Lenski et al., p. 61; Odahl 2001, p. 75–77; Pohlsander 2004a, pp. 15–16; Potter 2004, pp. 344–345; Southern 2001, pp. 169–170, 341; MacMullen 1969, p. 32.
Barnes 1981, pp. 27, 298; Elliott 1996, p. 39; Odahl 2001, p. 77–78, 309; Pohlsander 2004a, pp. 15–16.
Alföldi 1948, pp. 233–234; Southern 2001, pp. 170, 341.
Barnes 1981, pp. 27–29; Jones 1978, p. 59; Lenski et al., pp. 61–62; Odahl 2001, pp. 78–80.
Jones 1978, p. 59.
Jones 1978, p. 59; MacMullen 1969, p. 39.
Treadgold 1997, p. 28.
Gibbon, Edward (2018). History of The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire. [Otbebookpublishing]. ISBN 978-3-96272-518-1. OCLC 1059411020.
Barnes 1981, pp. 28–29; Rees 2002, p. 160; Lenski et al., p. 62; Odahl 2001, pp. 78–80.
Barnes 1981, p. 29; Elliott 1996, p. 41; Jones 1978, p. 41; MacMullen 1969, p. 39; Odahl 2001, pp. 79–80.
Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 16–17.
Odahl, 80–81.
Odahl, 81.
MacMullen, Constantine, 39; Odahl, 81–82.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63; MacMullen, Constantine, 39–40; Odahl, 81–83.
Odahl, 82–83.
http://laststatues.classics.ox.ac.uk, LSA-556 (Heintze, H.)
Odahl, 82–83. See also: William E. Gwatkin, Jr. Roman Trier." The Classical Journal 29 (1933): 3–12.
Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 24.9; Barnes, "Lactantius and Constantine", 43–46; Odahl, 85, 310–311.
Odahl, 86.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 28.
Rodgers, 236.
Panegyrici Latini 7(6)3.4; Eusebius, Vita Constantini 1.22, qtd. and tr. Odahl, 83; Rodgers, 238.
MacMullen, Constantine, 40.
Qtd. in MacMullen, Constantine, 40.
Zosimus, 2.9.2; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62; MacMullen, Constantine, 39.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 29; Odahl, 86; Potter, 346.
Barnes, New Empire, 5. Galerius and Maximinus ceased to be recognized as consuls at this time.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30–31; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 41–42; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87; Potter, 348–349.
Nixon, C. E. V.; Rodgers, Barbara S. (2023). In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini. University of California Press. pp. 180–185. ISBN 978-0-520-34282-8. The ceremony took place after 25 July, as there are coins that refer to Constantine as caesar while also commemorating his dies imperii.
Rees 2002, p. 165.
Sang, J. C. (1979). Panegyrici Latini, VI and VII: Translated with Introductions and Commentary. University of Cape Town. pp. 6–14, favouring late April/early May instead. ISBN 978-0-19-924918-3.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 31; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 87–88; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 30; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 62–63; Odahl, 86–87.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 63–65; Odahl, 89; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 15–16.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 64; Odahl, 89, 93.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 32–34; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 42–43; Jones, 61; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65; Odahl, 90–91; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 349–350; Treadgold, 29.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 33; Jones, 61.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 36–37.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34–35; Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 65–66; Odahl, 93; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 17; Potter, 352.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 34.
Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Pohlsander, Emperor Constantine, 20.
Elliott, Christianity of Constantine, 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.
Lactantius, De Mortibus Persecutorum 30.1; Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 40–41, 305.
Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 41; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68.
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